土木工程概論論文

對土木工程的發展起關鍵作用的，首先是作為工程物質基礎的土木建筑材料，其次是隨之發展起來的設計理論和施工技術。每當出現新的優良的建筑材料時，土木工程就 會有飛躍式的發展。

人們在早期只能依靠泥土、木料及其它天然材料從事營造活動，后來出現了磚和瓦這種人工建筑材料，使人類第一次沖破了天然建筑材料的束縛。中國在公元前十一世紀 的西周初期制造出瓦。最早的磚出現在公元前五世紀至公元前三世紀戰國時的墓室中。磚和瓦具有比土更優越的力學性能，可以就地取材，而又易于加工制作。

磚和瓦的出現使人們開始廣泛地、大量地修建房屋和城防工程等。由此土木工程技術得到了飛速的發展。直至18～19世紀，在長達兩千多年時間里，磚和瓦一直是土木工程的重要建筑材料，為人類文明作出了偉大的貢獻，甚至在目前還被廣泛采用。

鋼材的大量應用是土木工程的第二次飛躍。 十七世紀70年代開始使用生鐵、十九世紀初開始使用熟鐵建造橋梁和房屋，這是鋼結構出現的前奏。

從十九世紀中葉開始，冶金業冶煉并軋制出抗拉和抗壓強度都很高、延性好、質量均勻的建筑鋼材，隨后又生產出高強度鋼絲、鋼索 。于是適應發展需要的鋼結構得到蓬勃發展。除應用原有的粱、拱結構外，新興的桁架、框架、網架結構、懸索結構逐漸推廣，出現了結構形式百花爭艷的局面。

建筑物跨徑從磚結構、石結構、木結構的幾米、幾十米發展到鋼結構的百米、幾百米，直到現代的千米以上。于是在大江、海峽上架起大橋，在地面上建造起摩天大樓和高聳鐵塔，甚至在地面下鋪設鐵路，創造出前所未有的奇跡。

為適應鋼結構工程發展的需要，在牛頓力學的基礎上，材料力學、結構力學、工程結構設計理論等就應運而生。施工機械、施工技術和施工組織設計的理論也隨之發展，土木工程從經驗上升成為科學，在工程實踐和基礎理論方面都面貌一新，從而促成了土木工程更迅速的發展。

十九世紀20年代，波特蘭水泥制成后，混凝土問世了。混凝土骨料可以就地取材，混凝土構件易于成型，但混凝土的抗拉強度很小，用途受到限制。 十九世紀中葉以后，鋼鐵產量激增，隨之出現了鋼筋混凝土這種新型的復合建筑材料，其中鋼筋承擔拉力，混凝土承擔壓力，發揮了各自的優點。 二十世紀初以來，鋼筋混凝土廣泛應用于土木工程的各個領域。

從三十年代開始，出現了預應力混凝土。預應力混凝土結構的抗裂性能、剛度和承載能力，大大高于鋼筋混凝土結構，因而用途更為廣闊。土木工程進入了鋼筋混凝土和預應力混凝土占統治地位的歷史時期。混凝土的出現給建筑物帶來了新的經濟、美觀的工程結構形式，使土木工程產生了新的施工技術和工程結構設計理論。這是土木工程的又一次飛躍發展。
土木工程的特點

建造一項工程設施一般要經過勘察、設計和施工三個階段，需要運用工程地質勘察、水文地質勘察、工程測量、土力學、工程力學、工程設計、建筑材料、建筑設備、工程機械、建筑經濟等學科和施工技術、施工組織等領域的知識 ，以及電子計算機和力學測試等技術。因而土木工程是一門范圍廣闊的綜合性學科。隨著科學技術的進步和工程實踐的發展，土木工程這個學科也已發展成為內涵廣泛、門類眾多、結構復雜的綜合體系。

土木工程是伴隨著人類社會的發展而發展起來的。它所建造的工程設施反映出各個歷史時期社會經濟、文化、科學、技術發展的面貌，因而土木工程也就成為社會歷史發展的見證之一。

遠古時代，人們就開始修筑簡陋的房舍、道路、橋梁和溝澶，以滿足簡單的生活和生產需要。后來，人們為了適應戰爭、生產和生活以及宗教傳播的需要，興建了城池、運河、宮殿、寺廟以及其他各種建筑物。

許多著名的工程設施顯示出人類在這個歷史時期的創造力。例如，中國的長城、都江堰、大運河、趙州橋、應縣木塔，埃及的金字塔，希臘的巴臺農神廟，羅馬的給水工程、科洛西姆圓形競技場(羅馬大斗獸場)，以及其他許多著名的教堂、宮殿等。

產業革命以后，特別是到了20世紀，一方面社會向土木工程提出了新的需求；另一方面，社會各個領域為土木工程的前進創造了良好的條件。因而這個時期的土木工程得到突飛猛進的發展。在世界各地出現了現代化規模宏大的工業廠房、摩天大廈，核電站、高速公路和鐵路、大跨橋梁、大直徑運輸管道長隧道、大運河、大堤壩、大飛機場、大海港以及海洋工程等等。現代土木工程不斷地為人類社會創造嶄新的物質環境，成為人類社會現代文明的重要組成部分。

土木工程是具有很強的實踐性的學科。在早期，土木工程是通過工程實踐，總結成功的經驗，尤其是吸取失敗的教訓發展起來的。從17世紀開始，以伽利略和牛頓為先導的近代力學同土木工程實踐結合起來，逐漸形成材料力學、結構力學、流體力學、巖體力學，作為土木工程的基礎理論的學科。這樣土木工程才逐漸從經驗發展成為科學。

在土木工程的發展過程中，工程實踐經驗常先行于理論，工程事故常顯示出未能預見的新因素，觸發新理論的研究和發展。至今不少工程問題的處理，在很大程度上仍然依靠實踐經驗。

土木工程技術的發展之所以主要憑借工程實踐而不是憑借科學試驗和理論研究，有兩個原因：一是有些客觀情況過于復雜，難以如實地進行室內實驗或現場測試和理論分析。例如，地基基礎、隧道及地下工程的受力和變形的狀態及其隨時間的變化，至今還需要參考工程經驗進行分析判斷。二是只有進行新的工程實踐，才能揭示新的問題。例如，建造了高層建筑、高聳塔桅和大跨橋梁等，工程的抗風和抗震問題突出了，才能發展出這方面的新理論和技術。

在土木工程的長期實踐中，人們不僅對房屋建筑藝術給予很大注意，取得了卓越的成就；而且對其他工程設施，也通過選用不同的建筑材料，例如采用石料、鋼材和鋼筋混凝土，配合自然環境建造了許多在藝術上十分優美、功能上又十分良好的工程。古代中國的萬里長城，現代世界上的許多電視塔和斜張橋，都是這方面的例子。
Introduction to Civil Engineering Papers

Civil Engineering for the development of a key role, first as a material foundation for the civil engineering construction materials, followed by the subsequent development of the design theory and construction technology. Every time a new quality of building materials, civil engineering will be a leap-style development.

People can only rely on the early earth, wood and other natural materials in the construction activities, and later appeared in brick and tile that artificial materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural building materials. China in the eleventh century BC in the early Western Zhou Dynasty created the tile. The first brick in the fifth century BC to the third century BC, when the tomb of the Warring States Period. Brick and tile better than the mechanical properties of soil, materials, and easy to manufacture.

The brick and tile so that people began to appear widely, to a large number of housing construction and urban flood control project, and so on. This civil engineering technology has been rapid development. Up to 18 to the 19th century, as long as two thousand years, brick and tile has been a major civil engineering construction materials, human civilization has made a great contribution to the even was also widely used in the present.

The application of a large number of steel products is the second leap in civil engineering. Seventeen 1970s the use of pig iron, the early nineteenth century, the use of wrought iron bridges and the construction of housing, which is a prelude to the emergence of steel.

From the beginning of the mid-nineteenth century, metallurgical industry, smelting and rolling out high tensile and compressive strength, ductility, uniformity of the quality of construction steel and then produce high-strength steel wire, steel cables. As a result of the need to adapt to the development of the steel structure have been flourishing. In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structure, the new truss, a framework, the structure of network, cable structures to promote the gradual emergence of the structure of Yan in the form of flowers.

From the brick building long-span structures, stone structures, a few meters of wood, steel structure to the development of tens of meters, a few hundred meters, until modern km above. So in the river, cross the bridge from shelves, on the ground since the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise tower, even in the laying of underground railway, to create an unprecedented miracle.

In order to meet the needs of the development of steel works, on the basis of Newton's mechanics, material mechanics, structural mechanics, structural engineering design theory came into being, and so on. Construction machinery, construction technology and construction organization design theory also development, civil engineering from the experience of rising to become science, engineering practice and theoretical basis for both is a different place, which led to more rapid development of civil engineering.

During the nineteenth century, 20, made of Portland cement, concrete has come out. Concrete can aggregate materials, easy-to-concrete structures forming, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, limited use. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the surge in steel production, with the emergence of this new type of reinforced concrete composite construction materials, which bear the tension steel, concrete bear the pressure and play their own advantages. Since the beginning of the 20th century, reinforced concrete is widely used in various fields of civil engineering.

From the beginning of the 1930s, there have been pre-stressed concrete. Pre-stressed concrete structure of the crack resistance, rigidity and carrying capacity, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses an even wider area. Civil Engineering into the reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete dominant historical period. Concrete buildings to bring about the emergence of new economic, aesthetic structure in the form of engineering, civil engineering so that a new construction technology and engineering design of the structure of the theory. This is another leap in the development of civil engineering.
The characteristics of Civil Engineering

A project to build the facilities in general to go through the investigation, design and construction in three stages, require the use of geological prospecting projects, hydro-geological survey, engineering survey, soil mechanics, mechanical engineering, engineering design, building materials, construction equipment, engineering machinery, building the economy , And other disciplines and construction technology, construction and other fields of knowledge, as well as computer and mechanical testing techniques. Civil engineering is therefore a broad range of integrated disciplines. With the progress in science and technology development and engineering practice, the civil engineering disciplines have also been developed into a broad connotation, the number of categories, the structure of complex integrated system.

Civil Engineering is accompanied by the development of human society developed. It works in the construction of facilities reflect the various historical periods of socio-economic, cultural, scientific, technological development outlook, which civil society has become one of the historical development of the witness.

In ancient times, people began to build simple houses, roads, bridges and still water channel to meet the simple life and production. Later, in order to adapt to the war, production and dissemination of religious life, as well as the needs of the construction of the city, canals, palaces, temples and other buildings.

Many well-known works shown in this historical period of human creativity. For example, the Great Wall of China, Dujiangyan, the Grand Canal, Zhaozhou Bridge, Yingxian Wooden Tower, the pyramids of Egypt, Greece's Parthenon, Rome's water supply project, colosseum amphitheater (Rome large animal fighting Field), as well as many other well-known churches, palaces and so on.

After the industrial revolution, especially in the 20th century, on the one hand, civil society to put forward a new demand; On the other hand, all areas of society for the advancement of civil engineering to create good conditions. Thus this period of civil engineering has been advanced by leaps and bounds. All over the world there have been large-scale modernization of industrial plants, skyscrapers, nuclear power plants, highways and railways, long-span bridges, and large-diameter pipelines long tunnel, the Grand Canal, the big dams, airports, port and marine engineering, etc. . For civil engineering continually modern human society to create a new physical environment, human society, modern civilization has become an important part.

Civil Engineering is a very practical subjects. In the early days, through the civil engineering practice, summing up successful experience, in particular, to draw lessons from the failure of developed. From the beginning of the 17th century, with Galileo and Newton as a pilot with the mechanics of the modern civil engineering practice, gradually formed the mechanical, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, rock mechanics, civil engineering as the basis of theoretical subjects. This experience in civil engineering from the gradually developed into a science.

In the course of the development of civil engineering, engineering practice often first experience in theory, engineering accidents often show a new unforeseen factors, triggering a new theory of the research and development. So far a number of projects dealing with the problem, is still very much rely on practical experience.

Civil Engineering Technology with the main reason for the development of engineering practice and not by virtue of scientific experiments and theoretical studies, for two reasons: First, some of the objective situation is too complicated and difficult to faithfully carry out laboratory or field testing and analysis. For example, the foundation, tunnel and underground engineering and deformation of the state and its changes over time, still need to refer to an analysis of engineering experience to judge. Second, only a new engineering practice in order to reveal new problems. For example, the construction of a high-rise buildings, high-rise tower and mast-span bridges, wind and earthquake engineering problems highlighted in order to develop this new theory and technology.

In the long-term civil engineering practice, it is not only building great attention to the arts, has made outstanding achievements; and other works, but also through the choice of different materials, such as the use of stone, steel and reinforced concrete, with natural Environmental art in the construction of a number of very beautiful, very functional and good works. Ancient Great Wall of China, the modern world, many of the television tower and the bridge ramp Zhang, are cases in point.

土木工程中英文
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